Readings

Read pp. 207-221 of Ch. 10 of Positive Psychology.

CheckPoint

Human Virtues and Character Strengths

Examine one human virtue and the associated character strengths that are important to you, as listed in Ch. 10 of Positive Psychology.

Select someone who you know or is a public figure who you feel encompasses at least one of these virtues.

Discuss why this virtue is important to you. How does the person you selected encompass this virtue and the associated character strengths?

Post a 200- to 300-word response.

Think of someone you hold in high regard and look up to as a model for yourself and others.
Perhaps a friend, relative, or a person from history or contemporary society comes to
mind. Think about this individual’s personal qualities and how you might describe the
basis of your admiration to another person. Make a mental list of 4 or 5 qualities that make this
person deserving of your respect. Now compare your list to the positive traits discussed in
Chapter 9. How many of them overlap? Did your list include extraversion, cheerfulness, selfesteem,
or optimism? What traits on your list are not in Chapter 9? Did you include any of the
following qualities: integrity, courage, honesty, kindness, religious conviction, wisdom, fairness,
or modesty? The point here, affirmed by how we think about people we respect, is that a
description of positive human traits would be incomplete without including personal qualities
CHAPTER OUTLINE
Developing a Classification of Human Virtues
Measuring Strengths of Character
Wisdom as a Foundational Strength and Virtue
What is Wisdom?
Theories of Wisdom
Balance Theory
Wisdom as Expert Knowledge in the Conduct of Life
Wisdom in Action: The SOC Model of Effective Life Management
Focus on Theory: Wisdom or Self-control as Master Virtues?
Transcendence: Religion and Spirituality
The Search for Meaning
Religion and Spirituality: The Diversity of Views
Defining Religion and Spirituality
Religion/Spirituality and Well-Being
Religious Orientation
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Religious Orientation
Quest Religious Orientation
Attachment Theory and Relationship to God
Styles of Religious Coping
“Explaining Religion versus Explaining Religion Away”
Religion and Virtue
Forgiveness
Gratitude
Focus on Research: Increasing Well-Being by Counting Your Blessings
10
Virtue and Strengths
of Character
207
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Positive Psychology, by Steve R. Baumgardner and Marie K. Crothers. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
208 Chapter 10 • Virtue and Strengths of Character
judged as positive because they are “good” in
moral and ethical terms. Clearly, we may admire
people who are outgoing, upbeat, and positive
about the future. But just as clearly, and perhaps at a
deeper level, we also admire individuals who show
strengths of character that reflect virtuous qualities like
integrity, kindness, and compassion. In short, virtue
and character strengths belong on a list of positive
human traits.
The traits reviewed in Chapter 9 were evaluated
as positive because of their benefits to individual
well-being—specifically health, happiness, and
emotional well-being. Virtuous behavior may also
increase our life satisfaction and make life more
meaningful and healthy. However, virtue is also considered
a positive trait independent of any benefit or
“pay-off” to the individual. Virtue is positively
regarded in its own right because of its connection to
religious and secular mores and its value to society.
A consideration of virtue and character strengths provides
an additional way to think about the meaning
of “positive.” In this chapter, we will first review a
recent attempt to provide a comprehensive classification
of character strengths and virtues. Then, we will
focus on two foundational virtues (wisdom and
religion) in more detail by examining how they contribute
to well-being and a life well-lived.
DEVELOPING A CLASSIFICATION
OF HUMAN VIRTUES
For a considerable time in psychology’s history,
virtue was not considered an appropriate construct
for scientific investigation. The study of virtue was
thought to be too easily tainted and biased by the
moral beliefs of researchers and the prevailing cultural
mores of the day (Tjeltveit, 2003). Many psychologists
believed that science should provide only
objective facts about how people act. Questions
about how people should conduct themselves—that
is, whether their actions were good, bad, moral, or
immoral—were left for philosophers and theologians
to decide. However, a renewed interest in
character strengths has begun to emerge as more
psychologists have come to realize that a complete
account of human behavior needs to include the
moral dimension of people’s lives (Fowers &
Tjeltveit, 2003). Recent events from the Enron scandal
to the influence-peddling of lobbyist Jack
Abramoff have reinforced the importance of ethical
behavior. People’s anger and outrage at these sorts
of improprieties stem primarily from moral considerations.
In short, people lead moral lives in the sense
of evaluating themselves and others according to
moral criteria.
Describing the features of a life well-lived is a
central theme of positive psychology. Because the
meaning of a good person and a good life are intimately
connected to virtue, positive psychology has
given virtue particular prominence. This is most
apparent in a recent collaborative research project
(the Values in Action Project, Peterson & Seligman,
2004) that had the lofty goal of developing a classification
of character strengths and virtues that would
parallel the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
of Mental Disorders (DSM), developed by the
American Psychiatric Association (2000). The DSM
provides a classification of mental disorders and an
extensive “language” for describing human psychological
weaknesses and pathologies. Authors of the
Values in Action Project (VIA) hoped to create a
comprehensive classification system similar to the
DSM, but one that was focused on human strengths
rather than weaknesses. They also hoped to provide
a language describing positive human qualities that
defined a healthy person living a good life. Put
another way, the DSM describes aspects of life
“below zero” (with “zero” representing the threshold
dividing mental health from emotional illness). One
goal of the VIA was to describe life “above zero”
(i.e., to identify the traits that define emotional
health and strength). This goal is consistent with
positive psychology’s emphasis on restoring balance
to the field, in place of psychology’s historic focus
on problematic human behaviors.
Developing a classification of character
strengths is a daunting task. Virtue and character
are obviously complex topics. What, exactly, is a
human virtue or character strength? Do people have
a common understanding of traits that qualify as
virtuous? Getting answers to these questions was
one of the major purposes of the VIA. The VIA,
coordinated by Christopher Peterson and Martin
Seligman (2004), brought together a group of
researchers who sought to describe those strengths
of character that were most prominent across history
and culture. Is there a common set of human
qualities universally regarded as positive virtues? A
list of possible “candidates” was generated by examining
virtues and strengths described in a variety of
philosophic, religious, and cultural traditions. This
list included virtues described in major religions
ISBN 1-256-51557-4
Positive Psychology, by Steve R. Baumgardner and Marie K. Crothers. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 10 • Virtue and Strengths of Character 209
and philosophies (e.g., Confucianism, Buddhism,
Hinduism, Judeo-Christianity, and ancient Greek
philosophy), the works of famous historical figures
(e.g., Benjamin Franklin), and in popular culture
(e.g., Boy and Girl Scout Guides, Hallmark greeting
cards, popular songs, Saturday Evening Post covers
by Normal Rockwell).
From a long list of candidates, 24 character
strengths were selected and organized around 6
virtues. The 6 virtues—wisdom, courage, humanity,
justice, temperance, and transcendence—were
selected because they appear to be universal
across history and across societies. They represent
moral virtues as defined by most religions and ethical
philosophies. Peterson and Seligman regard
these virtues as core defining features of good
character. Each virtue is defined by a set of character
strengths that represent the ingredients, expressions,
and potential means of developing the
virtue. For example, temperance as a virtue refers
to people’s strength in avoiding excesses. The
ingredients and expressions of temperance would
include self-control, gratitude toward others,
humility, prudent decision-making, and the ability
to forgive the transgressions of self and others.
Developing this virtue would involve efforts to
exert more self-control, become more humble and
less self-aggrandizing, and more grateful and forgiving
in relationships with others.
Character strengths were selected by applying
a set of criteria to the list of strengths identified in
the first phase of the project. A sample of the set of
criteria used is shown in Table 10.1. To be included
in the final classification, a character strength had to
meet all or nearly all of these criteria.
Half of the strengths selected met the entire set
of criteria. The other half did not. As Seligman and
Peterson note, disagreements can arise about the
inclusion of one or another of the strengths, the placement
of a given strength under a particular virtue, and
whether some other important strength was omitted.
However, taken in total, this classification system
“hangs together” as a reasonably coherent first effort
at describing what may be universally regarded as
human strengths and virtues. The final classification of
strengths and virtues is described in Table 10.2. For a
complete description of the selection criteria, previous
classification models, and literature reviews detailing
what is known about each character strength, see
Peterson and Seligman’s Character Strengths and
Virtues: A Handbook and Classification (2004).
Wisdom and Knowledge
As a virtue, wisdom refers to a general intellectual
strength involving the development and use of
knowledge. Wisdom does not necessarily follow
from a formal education or a high IQ score. Wisdom
refers to a more practical intelligence and good judgment
based on learning life’s lessons—perhaps
through hardships. A wise person puts things in the
proper perspective and avoids the pitfalls of narrowly
focused and self-interested understandings. Wisdom
means being able to offer good counsel to others
about how to live and how to understand and deal
with life’s challenges, uncertainties, and choices.
Courage
Courage is the emotional strength to overcome fear
in the face of opposition and adversity. Courage is
TABLE 10.1 Criteria for selecting character strengths
Regarded as a valued moral quality in and of itself, whether or not it led to concrete benefits.
Contributes to personal fulfillment in the sense of enhancing personal expressiveness, meaningfulness, satisfaction,
and happiness.
Constitutes a stable individual difference trait for which reliable measures had been previously developed.
Be distinctive and not overlap with other strengths.
Have an opposite that was clearly negative (e.g., the opposite of courage is cowardice).
Enhances rather than diminishes other people when expressed (i.e., the trait must evoke admiration or respect rather
than envy, inferiority, or lowered self-evaluation).
Be the focus of institutional efforts (e.g., education, churches) to promote its development.
ISBN 1-256-51557-4
Positive Psychology, by Steve R. Baumgardner and Marie K. Crothers. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
210 Chapter 10 • Virtue and Strengths of Character
TABLE 10.2 Classification of virtues and character strengths
I. Wisdom and Knowledge—cognitive strengths that entail the acquisition and use of knowledge.
Defining Strengths
1. Creativity—thinking of novel and productive ways to do things
2. Curiosity—taking an interest in all ongoing experience
3. Open-mindedness—thinking things through and from all sides
4. Love of learning—mastering new skills, topics, and bodies of knowledge
5. Perspective—being able to provide wise counsel to others
II. Courage—emotional strengths that involve exercise of will in the face of opposition, external or internal.
Defining Strengths
6. Authenticity—speaking the truth and presenting yourself in a genuine way
7. Bravery—not shrinking from threat, challenge, difficulty, or pain
8. Persistence—finishing what one starts despite obstacles along the way
9. Zest—approaching life with excitement and energy
III. Humanity—interpersonal strengths that involve “tending and befriending” others.
Defining Strengths
10. Kindness—doing favors and good deeds for others
11. Love—valuing close relations with others
12. Social intelligence—being aware of the motives and feelings of self and others
IV. Justice—civic strengths that underlie healthy community life.
Defining Strengths
13. Fairness—treating all people the same according to notions of fairness and justice
14. Leadership—organizing group activities and seeing that they happen
15. Teamwork—working well as member of a group or team
V. Temperance—strengths that protect against excess.
Defining Strengths
16. Forgiveness—forgiving those who have done wrong
17. Modesty—letting one’s accomplishments speak for themselves
18. Prudence—being careful about one’s choices; not saying or doing things that might be later regretted
19. Self-regulation—regulating what one feels and does
VI. Transcendence—strengths that forge connections to the larger universe and providing meaning.
Defining Strengths
20. Appreciation of beauty and excellence—noticing and appreciating beauty, excellence, and/or skilled performance
in all domains of life
21. Gratitude—being aware of and thankful for good things that happen
22. Hope—expecting the best and working to achieve it
23. Humor—liking to laugh and tease; bringing smiles to other people
24. Religiousness/Spirituality—having coherent beliefs about the higher purposes and meaning of life
Source: Seligman, M. E. P., Steen, T. A., Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2005). Positive psychology progress: Empirical validation of
interventions. American Psychologist, 60, 410–421. Copyright American Psychological Association. Adapted and reprinted with
permission.
ISBN 1-256-51557-4
Positive Psychology, by Steve R. Baumgardner and Marie K. Crothers. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 10 • Virtue and Strengths of Character 211
exemplified in confronting and accepting one’s own
death; dealing with a debilitating illness or disease;
honestly confronting one’s own limitations, weaknesses,
or bad habits; and standing up for one’s
convictions, despite the possibility of negative consequences
(e.g., chastisement by others).
Humanity
Humanity refers to our capacity for sympathy, empathy,
compassion, and love in our relationships with
others. Humanity is the basis for nurturing and caring
relationships focused on another’s needs rather
than one’s own needs and interests. Humanity is
expressed in our willingness to help others in need,
to be kind, to be generous, and to respect the feelings
and values of others.
Justice
Justice is an essential ingredient in healthy societies,
communities, and relationships with others. This
virtue is shown when people are fair minded
and even-handed rather than being biased by selfinterest.
Justice also includes strengths that contribute
to community well-being, such as working
cooperatively with others and taking the initiative to
develop and follow through on goals and projects.
Temperance
Temperance is the strength to control excesses and
restrain impulses that may harm the self and others. It
expresses the idea of “willpower” in the face of temptations.
Temptations and the benefits of restraint
might be focused on eating; drinking; smoking;
expressing of anger, hatred, or arrogance toward others;
or excessive self-promotion at the expense of
others. Chapter 8 described some of the psychological
processes involved in self-control and selfdirected
actions that are relevant to temperance.
Temperance is a kind of ongoing self-awareness and
self-discipline that affirms the “look before you leap”
dictum of everyday wisdom. Temperance also
involves the ability to let go and forgive the indiscretions
and hurtful actions of others.
Transcendence
To transcend means to go beyond or rise above the
ordinary and the everyday. Transcendent thinking
lifts us out of the usual concrete preoccupations of
daily life and out of an individualized sense of self by
providing a broader view of the world and the universe.
Transcendence puts things in perspective and
keeps us from worrying about or striving for things
that don’t really matter. Religion and spirituality are
the clearest examples of transcendence because they
involve a belief in a higher power and a greater purpose
for life. Whatever their various forms, transcendent
beliefs connect the individual to a more
encompassing understanding and a deeper meaning
of life. The character strength of religiousness clearly
fits the virtue of transcendence.
The other strengths listed under transcendence
may not seem to fit so well. Peterson and Seligman
(2004) believe that the common theme here is providing
opportunities to appreciate and develop a bigger
picture of the world that may provide a more enduring
and satisfying understanding and purpose for life.
“Appreciation of beauty is a strength that connects
someone to excellence. Gratitude connects someone
directly to goodness. Hope connects someone directly
to the dreamed-of future” (Peterson & Seligman, 2004,
p. 519). Humor, they admit, seems a bit of stretch as
an expression of transcendence. However, as they
point out, humor keeps us from taking our selves and
our virtues too seriously. It reminds us to “lighten up.”
Laughter holds nothing sacred and can cut through
everything from self-righteousness to passionate conflicts
over important issues. On a daily basis, Jay Leno
and David Letterman create humor out of pain and
tragedy, from political scandals to the war in Iraq.
Perhaps humor serves a protective function by connecting
us directly to life’s absurdities and getting us
to laugh at them.
Measuring Strengths of Character
A major goal of the VIA project was the development
of measures for each of the 24 strengths of
character. Based on existing knowledge and assessment
instruments for each of the strengths, a 240-
item self-report questionnaire was created. Ten
items were used to assess each character strength.
For example, forgiveness is measured by items such
as, “I always allow others to leave their mistakes in
the past and make a fresh start.” Kindness is measured
by items like, “I’m never too busy to help a
friend.” Curiosity is measured through items such as,
“I am never bored.” Items like, “I always keep my
promises” measure integrity (Peterson & Seligman,
2004, pp. 629–630). Respondents rate their degree
of endorsement on a scale from 1 (very unlike me)
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Positive Psychology, by Steve R. Baumgardner and Marie K. Crothers. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
212 Chapter 10 • Virtue and Strengths of Character
to 5 (very much like me). Rating summaries produce
a profile of an individual’s relative standing on each
of the 24 character strengths. The entire VIA inventory
of strengths takes 30 to 40 minutes to complete.
You can take the VIA inventory of strengths online
at www.authentichappiness.sas.upenn.edu/. There
are several questionnaires on this site. You want to
select the VIA Signature Strengths Questionnaire,
which gives you a character strength profile and
identifies your top five strengths, called “signature”
strengths. You will need to log on to the site, provide
some basic information, and create a password
to take the test and have your responses scored.
Although still a work in progress, the VIA
Strengths Inventory has shown good internal consistency
and test–retest reliability. Individual self-ratings
have been validated against ratings by informed
observers. A youth version of the VIA inventory has
also been developed and tested (see Peterson &
Seligman, 2004). The inventory has been taken by
over 350,000 people of all ages and backgrounds, representing
50 countries and all 50 U.S. states (Peterson,
2006; Peterson & Seligman, 2004; Seligman, Steen,
Park, & Peterson, 2005).
Analysis of character-strength profiles in relation
to respondents’ backgrounds revealed several interesting
patterns. People from around the world show substantial
agreement regarding the strengths rated as
“most like me.” The most commonly endorsed character
strengths in 50 countries were fairness, kindness,
authenticity, gratitude, and open-mindedness. The
least frequently endorsed strengths were prudence,
self-regulation, and modesty. The correlations of
strength rankings across nations were typically in the
0.80 range. Despite widely different cultures, religions,
and ethnic backgrounds, people seem to share
a common understanding of character strengths and
virtues. Within the United States, the same pattern of
rankings was apparent with the exception of religiousness,
which was stronger in the southern states.
Interestingly, there was less agreement in
rankings between U.S. teenagers and U.S. adults
than among adults from different countries.
American adolescents rated hope, teamwork, and
zest as “most like me,” while American adults gave
higher endorsements to authenticity, appreciation of
beauty, leadership, and open-mindedness.
Character strengths related to relationships
(love) and positive emotions (e.g., zest, hope, and
gratitude) were more strongly related to measures of
life satisfaction than were more intellectual-cognitive
strengths (e.g., curiosity and love of learning).
“Strengths of the heart,” as Peterson and Seligman
call them (experiences such as kindness, love, and
gratitude), contribute the most to our individual
happiness.
Profiles of character strength also fit with the
matching hypothesis discussed in Chapter 7. People
were asked to think about personal experiences
involving their most rewarding and fulfilling jobs
and hobbies, their “truest” love, and their best
friends. The experiences they chose as the “most
satisfying (they) had ever had” were those that
matched their character strengths. For example,
people strong in kindness enjoyed working as mentors
for others. Those with curiosity as strength valued
and enjoyed romantic partners who were
adventuresome risk-takers.
Finally, factor analysis revealed a five-factor
dimensional structure of the 24 character strengths
that was similar (but not identical) to the original
organization of strengths around the six virtues.
The five factors were identified as strengths relating
to restraint (e.g., humility, prudence, and
mercy), intelligence (e.g., creativity and curiosity),
relationships (e.g., love and kindness), emotions
(e.g., bravery, hope, and self-regulation), and
religion (e.g., spirituality and gratitude). Peterson
and Seligman acknowledge the tentative nature of
the organization of character strengths around the
six core virtues. Subsequent research will undoubtedly
refine the virtue categories and the strengths
that define them. For example, a recent study
examining the factor structure of 42 positive character
traits, including those from the VIA project,
found only a partial overlap with the VIA six-virtue
model (Haslam, Bain, & Neal, 2004). Results suggested
that categories of self-control, love, wisdom,
drive, and vivacity may better capture how people
think about and organize character strengths.
Whatever the final organization, the VIA project
has provided a useful starting point, by proposing
a detailed list of character strengths and strong evidence
for their universality across time and culture.
In the remainder of this chapter, we will
review research and theory related to the virtues of
wisdom and transcendence. Chapter 11 is focused
on the virtue of love. Literature relevant to other
strengths has been discussed in previous chapters as
described below. Peterson and Seligman (2004) provide
a comprehensive review of research and theory
relating to each character strength.
ISBN 1-256-51557-4
Positive Psychology, by Steve R. Baumgardner and Marie K. Crothers. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 10 • Virtue and Strengths of Character 213
WISDOM AS A FOUNDATIONAL
STRENGTH AND VIRTUE
From the ancient Greeks to the present, wisdom and
living a good life have been intimately connected.
Despite cultural differences in the specifics (e.g.,
Yang, 2001), wisdom is most generally understood to
mean a philosophic understanding of what matters in
life and the practical knowledge of how to conduct a
life that matters (Baltes & Freund, 2003b; Peterson &
Seligman, 2004; Robinson, 1990). Theoretical wisdom
and practical wisdom are thus wedded together and
assumed to produce a happy and satisfying life. The
happiness connected to wisdom has more to do with
the eudaimonic than with the hedonic perspective
(see Chapter 4). Wisdom involves identifying and pursuing
the deeper and enduring purposes of life,
beyond individual happiness. Wisdom is the ability to
balance your needs and happiness with those of others
(Sternberg, 1998). Wisdom serves the common
rather than the purely individual good by finding a
balance between the two. Many psychologists have
come to regard wisdom as a foundation for a life welllived
and one of humans’ most important strengths
(e.g., Baltes & Freund, 2003a, 2003b; Baltes, Gluck, &
Kunzman, 2002; Csikszentmihalyi & Rathunde, 1990;
Sternberg, 1990, 1998a).
What Is Wisdom?
One way to explore the meaning of wisdom is to
examine people’s everyday understanding. Each of
us has some implicit idea about wisdom, drawn
from cultural characterizations that are embodied in
exemplars of “wise” people. Think of famous people,
past and present, who exemplify your understanding
of a wise person. Who comes to mind? The
top 15 answers given by college students are shown
in Table 10.3. Interestingly, along with well-known
wise people like Gandhi, Confucius, Jesus Christ,
Martin Luther King, and Socrates, “wisdom nominees”
also included Oprah Winfrey and Ann Landers
(Paulus, Wehr, Harms, & Strasser, 2002).
This study also investigated whether people
distinguish among wisdom, intelligence, creativity,
and sheer fame by having different groups of participants
make nominations for each of the specified
characteristics. Table 10.3 shows that the nominations
for each of the categories include a blend of
historic and contemporary figures. Evidence of the
differences people perceive among wise, intelligent,
creative, and just famous people was shown by the
low degree of overlap in the various nominee lists.
Only one person, Oprah Winfrey, was on both the
wisdom list and the intelligence list. There was no
overlap between nominees for creativity and wisdom,
a 27% overlap between creative and intelligent
people, and a 7% overlap between wisdom and creativity.
People do not use pure fame or notoriety as a
basis for nominating wise, creative, or intelligent
people. Sheer fame nominees never exceeded 20%
of overlap with the other three categories.
To get at the specific factors that define folk
wisdom, researchers have asked people to identify
Strength Topic Chapter
Curiosity Five Factor Model (FFM) Chapter 9
Openness to experience
Love of Learning Approach/avoidance goals Chapter 7
Intrinsic/extrinsic motivation
Persistence Commitment Chapter 7
Persistence and self-esteem Chapter 9
Integrity Autonomy Chapters 2; 7
Self-determination theory
Prudence FFM—conscientiousness Chapter 9
Self-regulation Self-control and regulation Chapter 8
Hope Optimism/hope Chapter 9
ISBN 1-256-51557-4
Positive Psychology, by Steve R. Baumgardner and Marie K. Crothers. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
214 Chapter 10 • Virtue and Strengths of Character
TABLE 10.3 Nominations for intelligent, creative, wise, and famous people
Intelligent Creative Wise Sheer Fame
1. Einstein Da Vinci Gandhi Princess Diana
2. Bill Clinton Picasso Confucius Elvis Presley
3. Da Vinci Michelangelo Jesus Christ Michael Jordan
4. Prime Minister Mozart M. L. King Muhammad Ali
5. Gates Spielberg Socrates Michael Jackson
6. Shakespeare Shakespeare Mother Theresa Bill Clinton
7. Hawking Michael Jackson Solomon Madonna
8. Oprah Beethoven Buddha Wayne Gretzky
9. Newton Walt Disney Pope Bill Gates
10. Mozart Robin Williams Oprah Winfrey John F. Kennedy
11. Edison Salvador Dali Winston Churchill Nelson Mandela
12. Suzuki Madonna Dalai Lama Marilyn Monroe
13. Madonna Sigmund Freud Ann Landers Adolph Hitler
14. Gorbachev Alexander Graham Bell Nelson Mandela George Bush, Sr.
15. Trudeau Margaret Atwood Queen Elizabeth Jesus Christ
Source: Paulus, D. L., Wehr, P., Harms, P. D., & Strasser, D. H. (2002). Use of exemplars to reveal
implicit types of intelligence. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 1051–1062. Copyright
American Psychological Association. Reprinted by permission.
wise behaviors and have analyzed the characteristics
of wisdom described in cultural, historical, and
philosophical writings. For example, Sternberg
(1985) asked a group of college professors and
lay-persons to list characteristics they associated
with wise people. Researchers then took the top
40 wisdom characteristics an

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